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Vice-President, National Academy of Sciences, 2101 Constitution
Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20418
ARTICLE The National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
(NAS) was established in 1863 by the U.S. Congress. Under the terms of
its charter, signed by President Abraham Lincoln, The Academy shall, whenever called upon by any department of
the Government, investigate, examine, experiment, and report upon any
subject of science or art, the actual expense of such investigations, examinations, experiments, and reports to be paid from appropriations which may be made for the purpose, but the Academy shall receive no
compensation whatever for any services to the Government of the United
States.
The charter stipulates virtually complete autonomy for the
Academy, including freedom to elect its members and establish its own
policies and procedures. Independence of the Academy is reinforced by
the stipulation that, apart from reimbursement of the actual costs of
studies it undertakes on behalf of the government, it receives no
government subsidy.
The National Academy of Sciences fulfills two distinct, although not
entirely unrelated, functions. It serves as an honorific society,
election to which is widely regarded as among the highest honors that
can be conferred on an American scientist. The Academy also serves, in
accordance with the terms of its charter, as an important and
influential advisor to the U.S. government on issues involving science
and technology. The former function is one that the NAS shares with
many other national academies of science, while the latter is somewhat
distinctive, as is the stipulation that the NAS receive no direct
subsidy from the government.
Here I shall attempt to describe these two roles.
The National Academy of Sciences as a Membership Organization
The membership of the NAS presently numbers 2158, including 1743 active members, 95 emeritus members, 306 foreign associates representing some 35 countries, and 14 public welfare medalists (individuals recognized for "eminence in the application of science to the public welfare"). Current rules provide for the election of
up to 60 new members and 15 new foreign associates each year.
Members of the NAS are distributed among six classes, listed below,
representing the major scientific disciplines and, further, among 25 sections, representing sub-disciplines, for example, mathematics,
astronomy, physics, chemistry, geology, and geophysics in the case of
Class I.
Class I: Physical and Mathematical Sciences (743 members).
Class II: Biological Sciences (603 members).
Class III: Engineering and Applied Sciences (236 members).
Class IV: Medical Sciences (215 members).
Class V: Behavioral and Social Sciences (258 members).
Class VI: Applied Biological and Agricultural Sciences (95 members).
The great majority of NAS members, both active and foreign associates,
work in universities or research institutes engaged in basic research.
Reflecting one of its important missions and the priorities and
interests of its membership, many of the Academy's own activities, in
most cases supported by its privately derived resources, are directed
at promoting the health of science, improving science education, and
enhancing public understanding of science. Among these activities are:
Other NAS activities include sponsorship of the Academy's Committee on
International Security and Arms Control, whose goals are to help seek
ways to reduce the threat of nuclear conflict and to encourage global
limitations on destabilizing weapons; also cosponsorship, with the
National Academy of Engineering and the Institute of Medicine, of the
Committee on Human Rights, which works on behalf of scientists
worldwide who are victims of severe repression. This committee also
oversees and coordinates the International Human Rights Network of
Science Academies.
Finally, the National Academy of Sciences represents the United States
on the International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU) and the
InterAcademy Panel, an informal organization of world science
academies.
The National Academy of Sciences as Advisor to the Nation Requests from the U.S. government for the advisory services of the
NAS started almost as soon as the institution was founded. The first
such requests, during 1863-1864, were for reports on weights,
measures, and coinage; magnetic deviations in iron ships; and
protecting bottoms of iron ships from corrosion. In fulfillment of the
terms of its charter, NAS continued to serve the government as an
independent and influential source of advice and, during the first few
decades of its existence, issued reports that played a major role in
the establishment of the U.S. Geological Survey, a new Naval
Observatory, the National Park Service, and the National Park System.
By 1916 it had become apparent that the range of expertise needed for
the advice that the NAS was being called upon to provide, especially
under wartime conditions, transcended that of its membership (then
about 150), which was largely restricted, as it now is, to scientists
engaged in basic research. Accordingly, the decision was made to
establish the National Research Council (NRC) as the operating arm of
the NAS, to conduct studies and provide advisory services under the
oversight of the NAS, but with participation of nonmembers from the
larger scientific and technical community, including engineers.
In 1964, under the authority of its charter, the National Academy of
Sciences established the National Academy of Engineering (NAE) and in
1970, the Institute of Medicine (IOM). These organizations recognize,
through election to their memberships, distinguished members of their
fields and bring to the tasks of the National Research Council the
expertise of their communities. Oversight of the National Research
Council now is shared by the NAS, NAE, and IOM. Although the IOM
conducts its own studies and the NAE does selected studies, most
studies in which the three organizations participate are conducted by
their common operating arm, the National Research Council.
The National Research Council is composed of the Commission on
Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education; Commission on Engineering
and Technical Systems; Commission on Life Sciences; Commission on
Geosciences, Environment, and Resources; Commission on Physical
Sciences, Mathematics, and Applications; Office of International
Affairs; Office of Scientific and Engineering Personnel; Board on
Agriculture; Transportation Research Board; Policy Division; and Center
for Science, Mathematics, and Engineering Education. Although the
Institute of Medicine is not part of the formal structure of the NRC,
its studies are conducted under the same guidelines, and with the same
approval and review procedures as those of NRC units.
Studies conducted by the NRC and its component organizations and
reports issued by these organizations conform to strict guidelines. These govern prior approval of each study, appointment of study committees, conduct of the study and peer review and approval of
reports before they are issued.
The size of the NAS/NAE/IOM/NRC complex and the volume of its
activity experienced a period of marked growth through about 1990 when
they attained their current levels. Presently, the complex employs
approximately 1200 persons, about half of whom are professionals, and
has an annual program and operating budget of about $200 million. About
80% of the budget is derived from federal government contracts, and
the rest comes from the Academies' own endowments and other private
sources.
The studies overseen by the NRC and the Academies (the NAS, NAE, and
IOM) are conducted by committees of unpaid volunteers, who also are
responsible for preparation of the reports. Currently, there are about
600 such committees, with a total membership of about 6000 people, of
whom about 20% are NAS, NAE, or IOM members. In recent years the NRC
and Academies have issued about 200 reports annually, many of them
hundreds of pages in length. These are published and distributed by the
Academies' own press, the National Academy Press.
Although responding to requests from the federal government continues
to be an important role of the NRC and the Academies, many of their
recent reports are the result of studies and other activities
undertaken on their own initiative. Even when not requested, such
studies often are recognized as being of sufficient public interest and
value that the government agrees to fund them. Other reports, based on
studies undertaken with private funds, have anticipated government
interest and subsequently turned out to have major impacts on public
perception and policy, for example, a 1984 report on acid rain
deposition and a 1986 report first proposing a national strategy for
the prevention and treatment of AIDS in the United States.
The range of themes, encompassed by the Academies' studies, reports,
and other activities now extends to virtually all of science,
technology, and society. Some of these are:
In addition to formal studies that culminate in consensus reports with
recommendations, the Academies and NRC also sponsor a variety of
workshops and roundtables and, because of their distinctive expertise
and resources, serve as administrators of certain activities, notably
fellowship programs, for other organizations, both government and
private.
International Activities
The National Academy of Sciences has engaged in international
activities from its earliest days. In 1866, three years after its
founding, the U.S. Secretary of State, on behalf of the Minister of
Nicaragua, asked the Academy to undertake a study of means to improve
the navigability of the San Juan River and its port, a study that
resulted in a report completed the same year.
In recent years, the scope and importance of the Academies'
international activities, many involving collaborative interactions with other academies of science, have increased greatly, as has the
scope and importance of the NRC Office Of International Affairs that
oversees many of these activities.
Reference already has been made to the NAS Committee on International
Security and Arms Control, to the Committee on Human Rights, and to the
role of the NAS in the International Council of Scientific Unions.
Other international activities of the Academies include regular
dialogues with science academies of other countries, for example, the
Royal Society of London and the academies of science of China, Russia,
and Mexico. Increasingly, efforts are being made to identify joint
projects with these and other academies and to help them to play more
active roles as science and technology advisors to their governments.
Such collaborative activities include:
Summarizing Comments
During the 133 years since its founding, the National Academy of
Sciences has undergone substantial growth and profound change in
response to the changing character and demands of science and society.
Throughout, it has remained remarkably faithful to its original mission
of providing the government and nation with independent expert advice
on a wide range of science and technology issues. At the same time,
this mission has expanded to keep up with the explosive growth and
importance of science and technology and with the increasingly
pervasive impact of science and technology on society November 1, 1996
FOOTNOTES
Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA
Vol. 94,
pp. 1606-1608,
March 1997
From the Academy
In service to science
and society*
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
(PNAS). The Academy's flagship journal was established in 1915 and continues to be one of the world's leading journals for
publication of results of original research, particularly in the
biological sciences. Efforts currently are underway to expand its scope
to cover the full range of science encompassed by the NAS. Another
recent modification provides for nonmembers to submit papers directly
to PNAS without requiring sponsorship by a member.
NAS Scientific Colloquia. Under this program the
NAS sponsors about six major international colloquia each year dealing with crosscutting forefront scientific themes. The proceedings are
published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences. Topics of recent colloquia were: Genetic
Engineering of Viruses and Viral Vectors; Symmetries
Throughout the Sciences; Elliptic Curves and Modular
Forms; Memory: Recording Experience in Cells and
Circuits; Developmental Biology of Transcription
Control; Science, Technology, and the Economy;
Vision: From Photon to Perception; and Quasars and
Active Galaxies.
Frontiers of Science Symposia. This program brings
together annually about 100 of the country's leading young scientists to report and discuss important recent developments in diverse branches
of science. The success and impact of these distinctive symposia are
such that they have served as models for other similar programs,
notably the international German-American Frontiers of Science
Symposia, cosponsored by the NAS and the German-American Academic
Council and the Frontiers of Engineering Symposia, sponsored by the
National Academy of Engineering.
Public Understanding of Science. This program is
directed at enhancing public understanding of science and of the
contributions of science to society. "Beyond Discovery: The Path
from Research to Human Benefit," one project in this program,
comprises a series of case studies, written by scientists and adapted
for broader audiences by science writers, that identify important
recent technological and medical advances and trace their origins,
notably the roles played by basic research. Examples are studies
describing the scientific origins of the ozone depletion phenomenon,
the global positioning system, human gene testing, and optical
communication.
The Role
of the National Research Council
Supporting the Sciences. A continuing series of
studies and reports assessing different scientific disciplines and
identifying needs and opportunities. Examples are: Opportunities
in Chemistry (1985); The Behavioral Sciences: Achievements
and Opportunities (1988); Frontiers in Chemical
Engineering (1988); Opportunities in Biology (1989);
and Polymer Science and Engineering (1989).
Science Policy Issues. Reports containing policy
recommendations concerning criteria and priorities for the support of
science. Examples are: Science, Technology and the Federal
Government: National Goals for a New Era (1993); Major Award
Decision-Making at the National Science Foundation (1995); and
Allocating Federal Funds for Science and Technology (1995).
Assessment of Government Research and Technology
Programs. The Academies are constantly being called upon to assess
the government's own research and technology programs and facilities. Examples of such reports are: Assessment of the National
Institutes of Science and Technology (1995); Research
Programs of the U.S. Bureau of Mines (1995); Review of the
Environmental Protection Agency (1995); An Assessment of the
National Science Foundation's Science and Technology Centers
(1996); and Review of the Research Program for a New Generation
of Vehicles (1994, 1996).
Science Education. A landmark study by the National
Research Council culminated in a report, The National Science
Education Standards (1995), that sets national targets for what
students should learn in science at levels from kindergarten through
grade 12. Follow-up studies are addressing implementation of these
standards. Other recent Academy reports address graduate education,
including Research-Doctorate Education Programs in the United
States: Continuity and Change (1995) and Reshaping the
Graduate Education of Scientists and Engineers (1995).
Health, Safety, and Social Issues. The Institute of
Medicine and National Research Council conduct studies and issue
reports covering a wide range of issues connected with medicine,
health, and social issues. Recent examples (1993-1996) include:
Science and Judgment in Risk Assessment; Social Impact
of AIDS in the United States; Strengthening Training in
Geriatrics for Physicians; Early Visual Development, Normal
and Abnormal; Assessing Genetic Risks: Implications for
Health and Social Policy; Measuring Poverty: A New
Approach; The Potential of Telemedicine; and
Understanding and Preventing Violence.
Natural Resources and Environment. Some recent
reports in this area are: Alternatives for Ground Water
Cleanup; The Greening of Industrial Ecosystems;
In Situ Bioremediation: When Does it Work?; Science
Priorities for the Human Dimensions of Global Change; Assigning Economic Value to National Resources;
Understanding Marine Biodiversity: A Research Agenda for the
Nation; and Coal: Energy for the Future.
Space Science. Recent reports include: The
Future of Aerospace; Scientific Opportunities in the Human
Exploration of Space; Microgravity Research: Opportunities
for the 1990s; A Strategy for Ground-Based Optical and
Infrared Astronomy.
Industry, Commerce, Transportation, and Technology.
A wide range of issues is addressed in recent reports such as:
Commercialization of New Materials for a Global
Economy; Detection of Explosives for Commercial Aviation
Safety; Industrial Waste Remediation and Utilization; Realizing the Information Future: The Internet
and Beyond; Cryptography's Role in Securing the Information
Society; Airports of Tomorrow; and Intelligent
Vehicle Highway Systems.
A joint project with the Mexican Academies of Science and
Engineering that resulted in a bilingual report, Mexico City's Water Supply: Improving the Outlook for Sustainability (1994). Another joint project entitled "U.S./Mexico Collaboration for Ocean Science Research" has been initiated. The NRC also is
assisting the Mexican Academy in a review of Mexican university
graduate programs.
Several U.S.-German studies cosponsored with the
German-American Academic Council (GAAC) with which the NAS is
affiliated. These include an NAS-cosponsored study on
U.S.-German Cooperation in Eliminating Weapons Plutonium;
an NRC-cosponsored study on International Friction and
Cooperation in High-Technology Development, Competition, and
Trade; and an NAE-cosponsored study on Technology Transfer
Systems in the United States and Germany. The NAS also cosponsors
with the GAAC a German-American Frontiers of Science Symposium series,
modeled on NAS' own successful program.
Activities of the Interacademy Panel (IAP), on which the NAS
serves as U.S. representative. An outgrowth of the successful 1993 Population Summit of the World's Scientific Academies in New Delhi,
the IAP was formed in 1995 to act as a forum through which the world's
academies of science can help address the scientific aspects of
important issues of international and regional concern. Currently, the
IAP is planning a Conference on Sustainability Transition
for the year 2000.
Other international activities include a joint project with
the science academies of India and China on the interaction of
population growth and land-use changes and a joint study with the
scientific academies and councils of the Middle East on sustainable water resources for the Middle East region. The NRC also provides scientific and administrative input for the U.S. government into the
Radiation Effects Research Foundation (RERF), a U.S./Japan binational
research organization that is conducting follow-up studies of the
health effects of the Hiroshima and Nagasaki atomic bomb explosions on
the survivors and their children.
an impact that
now extends to education, health, commerce, social welfare, the
environment, transportation, and virtually every other aspect of human
welfare. To reinforce its ability to respond to this expanded mission
the NAS has created the National Academy of Engineering, the Institute
of Medicine, and the National Research Council. The Academies and NRC
also have expanded the scope of their international activities and
intensified their interactions with other scientific academies to
reflect the increasing internationalization and global impact of
science and technology.
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