Symmetry arguments in chemistry

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   Figure 1

   Relationships among the chloro-substituted benzenes, C₆H_6-nCl_n, n = 0–6.

   
   
2. 

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   Figure 2

   Isomers of chloro-substituted benzenes, C₆H_6-nCl_n, n = 0–6, based on hexagonal symmetry of the benzene molecule.

   
   
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   Figure 3

   Structure of benzene that satisfies the quadrivalency of carbon. Kekulé assumed that the single and double bonds interchange rapidly.

   
   
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   Figure 4

   Axial and equatorial isomers expected of a monosubstituted cyclohexane with a nonplanar carbon skeleton with bond angles close to the tetrahedral angle of 109.47°. Ring inversion interchanges the axial and equatorial positions.

   
   
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   Figure 5

   A set of 18 isometric structures of the ethane molecule, obtained by symmetry operations of the D₃ point group and by rotation of one methyl group with respect to the other. There is a matching set of 18 isometric enantiomorphic structures, so the order of the isometric group is 36.

   
   
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   Figure 6

   Molecular orbitals of butadiene, built from the AOs of the four carbon atoms.

   
   
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   Figure 7

   Conrotatory and disrotatory motions leading to different cyclization products of a disubstituted butadiene.