Muons penetrate much further than X-rays, they do essentially zero damage, and they are provided for free by the cosmos.
Image credit: Science Source/Digital Globe.
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Contributed by Robert G. Webster, May 26, 2009
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↵1G.J.D.S., J.B., and D.V. contributed equally to this work. (received for review March 31, 2009)
Article Figures & SI
Figures
- Fig. 1.
Dated phylogenies of influenza A virus genes. (A) H1-HA, (B) PB2, (C) PB1, (D) PA, (E) H2-HA, and (F) H3-HA gene trees scaled to time (Horizontal Axis) generated using the SRD06 codon model and uncorrelated relaxed clock model. Nodes correspond to mean TMRCAs, and blue horizontal bars at nodes represent the 95% BCIs of TMRCAs. Colored branches represent major influenza A virus lineages. The blue boxes in B and D indicate a period of co-circulation of H2 and H3 viruses. Identical phylogenetic trees with virus names are available online in the supporting information. TMRCAs and BCIs for each of the major influenza A virus lineages are given in Table 1.
Tables
- Table 1.
Times of most recent common ancestors of human pandemic influenza viruses and related lineages
Gene Swine/Human H1N1 (node 1) BM/1918 H1N1 (node 2) Seasonal H1N1 (node 3) H1N1 Re-introduction (node 3a) H2N2 (node 5) H3N2 (node 6) PB2 1881 (1813, 1912) 1903 (1867, 1918) 1910 (1888, 1928) 1974 (1967, 1977) H1N1† H2N2† PB1 1906 (1890, 1918) 1914 (1906, 1918) BM/1918† 1974 (1970, 1977) 1954 (1951, 1957) 1967 (1965, 1968) PA 1904 (1888, 1915) 1914 (1906, 1918) BM/1918 1974 (1969, 1977) H1N1 H2N2 HA 1885* 1916 (1910, 1918) 1913 (1895, 1925) 1974 (1971, 1976) 1955 (1952, 1957) 1963 (1959, 1966) NP 1884* 1909 (1884, 1918) BM/1918 1974 (1969, 1977) H1N1 H2N2 NA 1907 (1892, 1918) 1913 (1905, 1918) BM/1918 1975 (1972, 1977) 1950 (1945, 1955) H2N2 M 1884 (1841, 1911) 1896* 1911 (1893, 1926) 1972 (1965, 1977) H1N1 H2N2 NS 1899 (1876, 1917) 1908 (1891, 1918) 1915 (1900, 1926) 1975 (1971, 1977) H1N1 H2N2 -
↵*Node not supported; therefore BCIs could not be estimated.
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†These gene segments were derived from BM/1918, seasonal H1N1, and H2N2 viruses, respectively.
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Data supplements
Supporting Information
Files in this Data Supplement:
Dating the emergence of pandemic influenza viruses
Article Classifications
- Biological Sciences
- Microbiology
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