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Edited by Anurag A. Agrawal, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, and accepted by the Editorial Board September 3, 2009 (received for review May 2, 2009)
Article Figures & SI
Figures
- Fig. 1.
A ME tree of Quercus based on AFLP data. Support values based on nonparametric bootstrap analysis are shown. All recognized major clades of oaks (48) are well-supported.
- Fig. 2.
Damage to introduced oaks caused by herbivory from chewing (A) or mining (B) insect feeding guilds as predicted by the phylogenetic distance [d: pairwise patristic (branch-length) distance] between the non-native and native oak (Q. lobata) and trait dissimilarity (t: pairwise Euclidean distance based on 11 leaf traits) of the introduced oak to the native. The simple correlation (r2yx, where y is the response and x is the predictor) and partial correlation (r2yx.w, where y is the response, x is the predictor, and w is a potential covariate whose effect on both y and x is accounted for before assessing the correlation) of each path was estimated. Significance of r2 (one-tailed P values) was assessed by using a phylogenetic permutation test, where the null hypothesis simulated is no correlation between the damage measurement for each species and the trait or phylogenetic distance. Phylogenetic uncertainty was incorporated by running all analyses >200 bootstrap replicates of the oak phylogeny, and the correlation and P value shown are averaged over bootstrap replicates. Total model correlation and P value are reported as mean ± SEM, where the error is caused by topology and branch length differences among bootstrap replicates. The width of each path arrow is proportional to the strength of the relationship. A plus or minus sign along a path indicates the direction of any significant correlations.
Tables
Damage/trait r2 λ Damage Chewing 0.869 1.0000 ± 0.0000 (P = 1.0000 [1.000]) Mining 0.659 0.1541 ± 0.0010 (P = 0.0096 [0.134]) Traits Maturation time 0.653 0.3984 ± 0.0021 (P = 0.0067 [0.094]) Bud break 0.886 0.7160 ± 0.0032 (P = 0.0991 [1.000]) Evergreenness 0.944 0.9950 ± 0.0010 (P = 0.9646 [1.000]) Toughness 0.842 1.0000 ± 0.0000 (P = 0.9998 [1.000]) Percent H2O 0.815 1.0000 ± 0.0000 (P = 1.0000 [1.000]) Specific leaf area 0.846 1.0000 ± 0.0000 (P = 1.0000 [1.000]) Phenolics 0.701 0.9886 ± 0.0017 (P = 0.9586 [1.000]) Condensed tannins 0.871 0.2932 ± 0.0292 (P = 0.3352 [1.000]) Tannins 0.757 0.1784 ± 0.0258 (P = 0.5685 [1.000]) Peroxidase 0.714 0.9623 ± 0.0026 (P = 0.8124 [1.000]) Protein 0.793 0.9171 ± 0.0042 (P = 0.6796 [1.000]) All 11 traits n/a 0.8040 (P = 0.0084 [0.067]) -
The proportion of variance in damage type or trait explained by among-species differences is estimated by r2. The degree of phylogenetic signal in each damage type or trait is estimated by Pagel's λ (ranging from 0 = character variance is not predicted by the phylogeny, 1 = all variance in the character can be explained by phylogenetic signal under a Brownian motion model of character evolution). P values are from a likelihood ratio test comparing an unconstrained model in which λ is estimated from the data to the Brownian motion model, in which λ = 1; P values in brackets are Bonferroni-corrected (N = 13 tests). Both λ and P were estimated on 200 nonparametric bootstrap replicate trees, and λ is reported as mean ± phylogenetic SE as a way of assessing the effect of phylogenetic uncertainty on parameter estimates. n/a, not applicable.
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- Table 2.
Standardized regression coefficients based on the multiple (all-predictors) model and cumulative small-sample AICc weights for including each of 11 herbivory predictors summed over all models including one through four parameters, based on a GLS model of the effect of oak leaf traits on herbivory by chewing and mining feeding guilds
Trait Chewing Mining Standardized coefficient AICc weight Standardized coefficient AICc weight Condensed tannins −0.271 ±0.001 0.718 ±0.004 0.003 ±0.001 0.209 ±0.001 Total tannins 0.145 ±0.001 0.275 ±0.002 −0.048 ±0.001 0.195 ±0.001 Specific leaf area −0.152 ±0.002 0.273 ±0.002 0.090 ±0.002 0.202 ±0.001 Day of bud break −0.205 ±0.001 0.270 ±0.001 0.016 ±0.001 0.227 ±0.001 Evergreenness 0.030 ±0.001 0.206 ±0.001 −0.229 ±0.002 0.356 ±0.004 Phenolics −0.038 ±0.001 0.201 ±0.001 0.146 ±0.002 0.225 ±0.001 Peroxidase −0.109 ±0.001 0.198 ±0.001 −0.070 ±0.001 0.224 ±0.001 Protein content 0.036 ±0.001 0.198 ±0.001 0.094 ±0.001 0.199 ±0.001 Leaf toughness 0.021 ±0.001 0.193 ±0.001 −0.135 ±0.001 0.260 ±0.001 Maturation time −0.070 ±0.001 0.189 ±0.001 −0.228 ±0.001 0.463 ±0.003 Percent H2O 0.028 ±0.001 0.185 ±0.001 −0.033 ±0.002 0.207 ±0.001 -
Standardized regression coefficients estimate the relative effect of each predictor on the response, scaled in units of SD; cumulative AICc weights estimate the importance of each parameter in explaining the predictor over a wide range of possible models. Parameter estimates are presented as the mean over 200 bootstrap replicate trees ± phylogenetic SE.
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Data supplements
Supporting Information
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Phylogenetic and trait similarity to a native species predict herbivory on non-native oaks
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