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Research Article

Facial expressions of emotion are not culturally universal

Rachael E. Jack, Oliver G. B. Garrod, Hui Yu, Roberto Caldara, and Philippe G. Schyns
  1. aSchool of Psychology, University of Glasgow, Scotland G12 8QB;
  2. bInstitute of Neuroscience and Psychology, University of Glasgow, Scotland G12 8QB, United Kingdom; and
  3. cDepartment of Psychology, University of Fribourg, Fribourg 1700, Switzerland

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PNAS May 8, 2012 109 (19) 7241-7244; https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1200155109
Rachael E. Jack
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  • For correspondence: rachael.jack@glasgow.ac.uk
Oliver G. B. Garrod
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Hui Yu
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Roberto Caldara
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Philippe G. Schyns
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  1. Edited by James L. McClelland, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, and approved March 19, 2012 (received for review January 5, 2012)

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Abstract

Since Darwin’s seminal works, the universality of facial expressions of emotion has remained one of the longest standing debates in the biological and social sciences. Briefly stated, the universality hypothesis claims that all humans communicate six basic internal emotional states (happy, surprise, fear, disgust, anger, and sad) using the same facial movements by virtue of their biological and evolutionary origins [Susskind JM, et al. (2008) Nat Neurosci 11:843–850]. Here, we refute this assumed universality. Using a unique computer graphics platform that combines generative grammars [Chomsky N (1965) MIT Press, Cambridge, MA] with visual perception, we accessed the mind’s eye of 30 Western and Eastern culture individuals and reconstructed their mental representations of the six basic facial expressions of emotion. Cross-cultural comparisons of the mental representations challenge universality on two separate counts. First, whereas Westerners represent each of the six basic emotions with a distinct set of facial movements common to the group, Easterners do not. Second, Easterners represent emotional intensity with distinctive dynamic eye activity. By refuting the long-standing universality hypothesis, our data highlight the powerful influence of culture on shaping basic behaviors once considered biologically hardwired. Consequently, our data open a unique nature–nurture debate across broad fields from evolutionary psychology and social neuroscience to social networking via digital avatars.

  • modeling
  • reverse correlation
  • categorical perception
  • top-down processing
  • cultural specificity

Footnotes

  • ↵1To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail: rachael.jack{at}glasgow.ac.uk.
  • Author contributions: R.E.J., O.G.B.G., R.C., and P.G.S. designed research; R.E.J., O.G.B.G., and H.Y. performed research; O.G.B.G., H.Y., and P.G.S. contributed new reagents/analytic tools; R.E.J., O.G.B.G., H.Y., and P.G.S. analyzed data; and R.E.J., R.C., and P.G.S. wrote the paper.

  • The authors declare no conflict of interest.

  • This article is a PNAS Direct Submission.

  • This article contains supporting information online at www.pnas.org/lookup/suppl/doi:10.1073/pnas.1200155109/-/DCSupplemental.

Freely available online through the PNAS open access option.

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Facial expressions are not universal
Rachael E. Jack, Oliver G. B. Garrod, Hui Yu, Roberto Caldara, Philippe G. Schyns
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences May 2012, 109 (19) 7241-7244; DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1200155109

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Facial expressions are not universal
Rachael E. Jack, Oliver G. B. Garrod, Hui Yu, Roberto Caldara, Philippe G. Schyns
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences May 2012, 109 (19) 7241-7244; DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1200155109
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  • Relationship between Research Article and Letter - January 08, 2013

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  • Facial expressions are different across cultures
    - Jan 08, 2013
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