Atmospheric methane levels increased over geological formations in Northern Siberia following a heat wave in 2020, suggesting that permafrost thaw releases methane from reservoirs.
Image credit: Wikimedia Commons.
Edited by Kenneth Wachter, University of California, Berkeley, CA, and approved April 4, 2012 (received for review April 19, 2011)
Article Figures & SI
Figures
- Fig. 1.
Analytic sample of study.
Tables
- Table 1.
Mortality rates between ages 15 and 64 (deaths per 100,000 person years) by age, sex, and birth cohort
Age and cohort Men Women Age 15–19 20–29 30–39 40–49 50–59 60–64 15–19 20–29 30–39 40–49 50–59 60–64 Birth cohort 1943 N/A 106 147 266 561 979 N/A 51 84 165 371 631 1944 N/A 109 139 250 523 N/A N/A 47 81 161 358 N/A 1945 98 102 142 249 499 N/A 38 50 76 169 343 N/A 1946 87 104 141 253 496 N/A 43 49 69 154 332 N/A 1947 90 104 138 246 501 N/A 40 45 71 149 321 N/A 1948 88 108 139 225 461 N/A 39 46 67 152 314 N/A 1949 88 113 133 214 N/A N/A 43 44 68 146 N/A N/A 1950 87 110 120 223 N/A N/A 38 49 71 138 N/A N/A 1951 80 111 125 221 N/A N/A 36 47 77 144 N/A N/A 1952 82 111 124 223 N/A N/A 36 40 64 135 N/A N/A 1953 97 105 124 211 N/A N/A 42 41 72 144 N/A N/A 1954 91 109 129 213 N/A N/A 38 45 58 131 N/A N/A 1955 91 114 132 201 N/A N/A 37 46 60 129 N/A N/A All 89 108 134 231 507 979 39 46 71 148 340 631 N/A, not applicable.
- Table 2.
Effect of the reform on all-cause mortality among men and women before age 40, in age 40 and after, and during the full follow-up, hazard ratios (95% CI)
Follow-up period (no. of deaths: men/women) Men (n before 40 and all ages = 639,473; n after age 40 = 613,842) Women (n before 40 and all ages = 608,394; n after age 40 = 586,677) All (n before 40 and all ages = 1,247,867; n after age 40 = 1,200,519) Before age 40 (18,496/8,526) 1.03 (0.97–1.08) 1.02 (0.95–1.10) 1.03 (0.98–1.07) Age 40 and after (39,867/25,462) 0.96 (0.92–1.00) 0.95 (0.91–1.00) 0.96 (0.93–0.99) All ages (58,363/33,988) [0.98 (0.95–1.02)]* 0.97 (0.94–1.01) 0.98 (0.95–1.01) Boldface represents significant P value (P < 0.05). All models include control for birth cohort and municipality fixed-effects. SEs are clustered at the municipal level. The pooled models (both women and men) include control for sex.
↵*Violation of the proportional hazard assumption.
- Table 3.
Effect of the reform on cause-specific mortality after age 40, hazard ratios (95% CI)
Cause of death (no. of deaths: men/women) Men (n = 613,842) Women (n = 586,677) All (n = 1,200,519) Cancer (11,553/13,827) 0.94 (0.87–1.01) 0.94 (0.88–1.01) 0.94(0.90–0.99) Of lung/trachea/bronchus/larynx (2,221/2,471) 0.93 (0.78–1.10) 0.83(0.71–0.98) 0.88(0.78–0.99) Of breast (17/3,480) 0.75 (0.04–15.10) 1.01 (0.89–1.15) 1.01 (0.89–1.15) Of lymphatic/hematopoietic tissue (1,211/762) 0.89 (0.70–1.12) 0.75 (0.55–1.02) 0.83 (0.69–1.01) All other cancers (8,104/7,114) 0.95 (0.86–1.04) 0.97 (0.89–1.06) 0.96 (0.90–1.02) Circulatory diseases (11,474/3,951) 1.04 (0.96–1.13) 0.95 (0.84–1.07) 1.01 (0.95–1.09) Ischemic heart diseases (7,016/1,612) 1.07 (0.97–1.19) 0.80(0.66–0.97) 1.02 (0.92–1.12) Cerebrovascular diseases (1,767/1,220) 1.03 (0.86–1.22) 1.04 (0.84–1.28) 1.03 (0.90–1.17) All other circulatory diseases (2,691/1,119) 0.96 (0.84–1.11) 1.08 (0.86–1.36) 1.00 (0.88–1.13) External causes (7,676/2,845) 0.90(0.83–0.98) 0.97 (0.83–1.12) [0.92(0.85–0.99)]† Accidents (3,190/962) 0.85(0.75–0.97) 0.91 (0.72–1.15) 0.87(0.77–0.98) Suicide and intentional self harm (3,180/1,288) 0.89 (0.78–1.01) 0.98 (0.78–1.22) [0.91 (0.82–1.02)]† All other external causes (1,306/595) 1.06 (0.86–1.30) 1.06 (0.79–1.42) 1.06 (0.89–1.25) All other causes (9,164/4,839) 0.95 (0.88–1.03) 0.99 (0.88–1.10) 0.96 (0.90–1.03) Boldface represents significant P value (P < 0.05). All models include control for birth cohort and municipality fixed-effects. SEs are clustered at the municipal level. The pooled models (both women and men) include control for sex.
↵†Significant interaction sex*reform.
- Table 4.
Effect of the reform on all-cause mortality for individuals with different levels of highest attained educational level at the end of 1985, hazard ratios (95% CI)
All Compulsory Vocational Senior secondary Tertiary less than 3 y Tertiary 3 y or more Men 0.96 (0.92–1.00) 0.95 (0.89–1.01) 0.93(0.87–0.99) 0.96 (0.86–1.08) 1.07 (0.91–1.26) 1.06 (0.94–1.20) Dead/n 40,260/596,769 14,856/173,896 12,071/162,702 5,062/89,627 2,275/53,537 3,140/83,695 Women 0.96 (0.92–1.00) 0.92 (0.84–1.01) 0.92(0.85–0.99) 1.16 (0.97–1.39) 1.01 (0.86–1.19) 0.93 (0.78–1.09) Dead/n 25,647/574,629 7,961/133,735 9,231/205,271 1,631/47,501 2,246/74,468 2,339/73,356 All 0.96(0.93–0.99) 0.94(0.89–0.99) 0.92(0.88–0.97) 1.01 (0.92–1.12) 1.03 (0.92–1.15) 1.00 (0.90–1.12) Dead/n 65,907/1,171,398 22,817/307,631 21,302/367,973 6,693/137,128 4,521/128,005 5,479/157,051 Boldface represents significant P value (P < 0.05). The pooled models (both women and men) include control for sex. Follow-up between January 1986 and December 2007.
Causal effect of education on mortality
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