The evolution of self-control

Departments of ^aEvolutionary Anthropology,
^aaNeurobiology, and
^mPsychology and Neuroscience, and
^bCenter for Cognitive Neuroscience,
^oDuke Institute for Brain Sciences, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708;
^cIstituto di Scienze e Tecnologie della Cognizione Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, 00197 Rome, Italy;
^dDepartment of Developmental and Comparative Psychology, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, D-04103 Leipzig, Germany;
^eDepartment of Biology, Duke University, Durham, NC 27704;
^fInstituto de Neuroetologia, Universidad Veracruzana, Xalapa, CP 91190, Mexico;
^gResearch Centre in Evolutionary Anthropology and Palaeoecology, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool L3 3AF, United Kingdom;
^hCenter for Interdisciplinary Brain Sciences Research and
ⁱDepartment of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305;
^jCenter for Animal Care Sciences, Smithsonian National Zoological Park, Washington, DC 20008;
^kDepartment of Brain and Cognitive Science and
^sDepartment of Comparative Medicine, Seneca Park Zoo, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14620;
^lDepartment of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of St. Andrews, St. Andrews KY16 9JP, Scotland;
ⁿDepartment of Psychology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104;
^pAnthropological Institute and Museum, University of Zurich, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland;
^qDepartment of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 3EB, United Kingdom;
^rDepartment of Psychology and
^uHelen Wills Neuroscience Institute, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720;
^tGraduate School of Letters, Kyoto University, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan;
Departments of ^vPsychology and
^hhWildland Resources, Utah State University, Logan, UT 84322;
^wDepartment of Psychology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40506;
^xDepartment of Psychology, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520;
^yDepartamento Engenharia e Meio Ambiente, Universidade Federal da Paraiba, 58059-900, João Pessoa, Brazil;
^zDepartment of Psychology, University of York, Heslington, York YO10 5DD, United Kingdom;
^bbThink Elephants International, Stone Ridge, NY 12484;
^ccMesserli Research Institute, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, 1210 Vienna, Austria;
^ddWolf Science Center, A-2115 Ernstbrunn, Austria;
^eeDepartment of Biology, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada H3A 1B1;
^ffDepartment of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109; and
^ggDepartment of Psychology, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China

Edited by Jon H. Kaas, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, and approved March 21, 2014 (received for review December 30, 2013)

Footnotes

↵¹To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail: maclean{at}duke.edu.

Author contributions: E.L.M., B.H., and C.L.N. designed research; E.L.M., B.H., E.A., F. Amici, R.C.A., F. Aureli, J. M. Baker, A.E.B., A.M.B., N.J.B., E.M.B., E.E.B., J.B., L.J.N.B., J. M. Burkart, J.C., J.F.C., L.G.C., N.S.C., M.M.D., L.J.D., K.F., E.H., C.H., L.F.J., K.E.J., J.R.L., K.L.L., E.J.E.M., A.C.d.A.M., L.O., A.P., M.L.P., J.M.P., F.R., S.M.R., R.B.R., A.A.S., L.R.S., K.S., A.M.S., K.B.S., R.C.S., K.E.S., Y.S., A.T., J.T., R.T., C.P.v.S., Z.V., E.V., J.C.W., A.W., J.W., J.K.Y., T.R.Z., and Y.Z. performed research; E.L.M. and C.L.N. analyzed data; and E.L.M., B.H., and C.L.N. wrote the paper.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
This article is a PNAS Direct Submission.
This article contains supporting information online at www.pnas.org/lookup/suppl/doi:10.1073/pnas.1323533111/-/DCSupplemental.

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	Abstract	Full	Pdf
Apr 2014	8169	432	808
May 2014	8739	194	695
Jun 2014	1494	134	192
Jul 2014	748	64	130
Aug 2014	707	40	75
Sep 2014	872	92	100
Oct 2014	828	96	114
Nov 2014	682	86	84
Dec 2014	427	115	154
Total 2014	22666	1253	2352
Jan 2015	547	172	123
Feb 2015	443	249	119
Mar 2015	443	181	122
Apr 2015	372	212	175
May 2015	433	151	130
Jun 2015	419	105	110
Jul 2015	442	122	170
Aug 2015	460	132	118
Sep 2015	372	182	150
Oct 2015	582	276	153
Nov 2015	629	218	161
Dec 2015	727	150	184
Total 2015	5869	2150	1715
Jan 2016	1248	230	350
Feb 2016	706	207	104
Mar 2016	709	226	145
Apr 2016	1214	331	155
May 2016	641	262	116
Jun 2016	454	154	91
Jul 2016	278	149	169
Aug 2016	291	181	101
Sep 2016	445	329	132
Oct 2016	406	318	151
Nov 2016	356	223	172
Dec 2016	296	129	110
Total 2016	7044	2739	1796
Jan 2017	305	155	148
Feb 2017	384	162	153
Mar 2017	459	143	113
Apr 2017	1080	243	149
May 2017	453	151	108
Jun 2017	312	149	75
Jul 2017	241	140	94
Aug 2017	215	112	79
Sep 2017	283	165	188
Oct 2017	438	140	153
Nov 2017	427	218	171
Dec 2017	269	112	96
Total 2017	4866	1890	1527
Jan 2018	336	205	167
Feb 2018	312	264	132
Mar 2018	350	262	175
Apr 2018	256	232	112
May 2018	313	304	210
Jun 2018	288	212	112
Jul 2018	532	363	144
Aug 2018	604	244	126
Sep 2018	433	277	167
Oct 2018	237	340	156
Nov 2018	153	413	112
Dec 2018	100	367	105
Total 2018	3914	3483	1718
Jan 2019	100	416	111
Feb 2019	111	264	135
Mar 2019	120	318	164
Apr 2019	91	255	160
May 2019	74	267	130
Jun 2019	60	187	114
Jul 2019	53	196	104
Aug 2019	97	171	123
Sep 2019	59	187	118
Oct 2019	140	307	132
Nov 2019	115	291	122
Dec 2019	57	333	77
Total 2019	1077	3192	1490
Jan 2020	103	384	125
Feb 2020	97	403	94
Mar 2020	105	669	165
Apr 2020	89	398	171
May 2020	87	378	216
Jun 2020	76	234	117
Jul 2020	58	335	119
Aug 2020	63	244	120
Sep 2020	126	381	208
Oct 2020	141	433	211
Nov 2020	154	376	178
Dec 2020	141	312	160
Total 2020	1240	4547	1884
Jan 2021	74	216	127
Total 2021	74	216	127
Total	46750	19470	12609