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Edited by Susan T. Fiske, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, and approved August 19, 2014 (received for review May 27, 2014)
Significance
It is a popular assumption that certain perceptions—for example, that highly feminine women are attractive, or that masculine men are aggressive—reflect evolutionary processes operating within ancestral human populations. However, observations of these perceptions have mostly come from modern, urban populations. This study presents data on cross-cultural perceptions of facial masculinity and femininity. In contrast to expectations, we find that in less developed environments, typical “Western” perceptions are attenuated or even reversed, suggesting that Western perceptions may be relatively novel. We speculate that novel environments, which expose individuals to large numbers of unfamiliar faces, may provide novel opportunities—and motives—to discern subtle relationships between facial appearance and other traits.
Abstract
A large literature proposes that preferences for exaggerated sex typicality in human faces (masculinity/femininity) reflect a long evolutionary history of sexual and social selection. This proposal implies that dimorphism was important to judgments of attractiveness and personality in ancestral environments. It is difficult to evaluate, however, because most available data come from large-scale, industrialized, urban populations. Here, we report the results for 12 populations with very diverse levels of economic development. Surprisingly, preferences for exaggerated sex-specific traits are only found in the novel, highly developed environments. Similarly, perceptions that masculine males look aggressive increase strongly with development and, specifically, urbanization. These data challenge the hypothesis that facial dimorphism was an important ancestral signal of heritable mate value. One possibility is that highly developed environments provide novel opportunities to discern relationships between facial traits and behavior by exposing individuals to large numbers of unfamiliar faces, revealing patterns too subtle to detect with smaller samples.
Footnotes
- ↵1To whom correspondence should be addressed. Email: i.s.penton-voak{at}bristol.ac.uk.
Author contributions: I.M.S., S.C.J., and I.S.P.-V. designed research; I.M.S., A.P.C., S.C.J., A.H.B., R.L.F., M.A.G., B.S.H., M.J., W.J., P.L.H., Z.H., M.A.L., B.G.P., J.H.S., J.J.S., R.S., L.S.S., V.S., D.W.Y., Y.Z., and I.S.P.-V. performed research; I.M.S., A.P.C., I.C.C., and I.S.P.-V. analyzed data; and I.M.S., A.P.C., I.C.C., and I.S.P.-V. wrote the paper.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
This article is a PNAS Direct Submission.
This article contains supporting information online at www.pnas.org/lookup/suppl/doi:10.1073/pnas.1409643111/-/DCSupplemental.
Freely available online through the PNAS open access option.
Preferring sex dimorphic faces may be novel
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- Anthropology
- Biological Sciences
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