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Edited by Susan Hanson, Clark University, Worcester, MA, and approved May 26, 2015 (received for review January 8, 2015)
Article Figures & SI
Figures
- Fig. 1.
Maps of overexploited aquifers in the United States: (A) CV, (B) HP, and (C) ME. The areal extent of the aquifers is shown with white highlighting. The US states are shaded to indicate the volume of virtual groundwater transferred from each overexploited aquifer. Darker shades highlight more virtual groundwater transfers into the US state.
- Fig. S1.
Spatial scale of each data source. (A) County: water use data and agricultural production data; (B) state: virtual water contents; (C) port: international export of agricultural commodities; (D) CFS area: domestic transfers of food commodities.
- Fig. 2.
Consumption of overexploited aquifers in the United States. The size of each circle indicates the volume of groundwater withdrawals for agriculture from each aquifer as given by the US Geological Survey. In 2005, 23.38, 13.59, and 9.34 km3 of groundwater was withdrawn for irrigation from the HP, ME, and CV aquifer systems, respectively. Each circle shows the proportion of groundwater withdrawals that goes to irrigation losses and return flows, intraaquifer state transfers, domestic transfers, and international exports. The ME aquifer ships the largest proportion abroad (10.5%), compared with 3.4% in the HP and 7.8% in the CV.
- Fig. 3.
Ranking of US metropolitan areas that currently most rely on virtual groundwater from each of the CV, HP, ME aquifers. The total volume virtually transferred to each US metropolitan area is provided, as well as the fraction of groundwater withdrawals from each aquifer system that this represents. Note that the triangles are provided for graphic representation only and are not scaled according to size. Importantly, cities in the western United States are relatively reliant upon virtual groundwater transfers from the CV aquifer, whereas virtual groundwater transfers from the HP aquifer tend to be more dispersed across the United States, as they are with the ME aquifer, with the exception of the major shipping port of New Orleans.
- Fig. 4.
Percentage of virtual groundwater transfers attributed to each of the seven commodity groups in the HP, ME, and CV aquifers.
- Fig. 5.
International virtual groundwater transfers from overexploited aquifers in the United States. The size of the outer bar indicates the total virtual groundwater export volume for the ME aquifer (blue), HP aquifer (yellow), and CV aquifer (green). Aquifer origin volume is indicated with links emanating from the outer bar of the same color. Export destination volume is indicated with a white area separating the outer bar from links of a different color. The countries and regions that import the most virtual groundwater are provided. The links are scaled relative to the volume of virtual groundwater exported. This figure was created with network visualization software available at circos.ca, developed by ref. 44.
Tables
No. CFS area 1 Alaska 2 Albany–Schenectady–Amsterdam, NY 3 Arkansas 4 Atlanta–Sandy Springs–Gainesville, GA–AL (GA part) 5 Austin–Round Rock, TX 6 Baltimore–Towson, MD 7 Baton Rouge–Pierre part, LA 8 Beaumont–Port Arthur, TX 9 Birmingham–Hoover–Cullman, AL 10 Boston–Worcester–Manchester, MA-NH (MA part) 11 Buffalo–Niagara–Cattaraugus, NY 12 Charleston–North Charleston, SC 13 Charlotte–Gastonia–Salisbury, NC–SC (NC part) 14 Chicago–Naperville–Michigan City, IL–IN–WI (IL part) 15 Chicago–Naperville–Michigan City, IL–IN–WI (IN part) 16 Cincinnati–Middletown–Wilmington, OH–KY–IN (OH part) 17 Cleveland–Akron–Elyria, OH 18 Columbus–Marion–Chillicothe, OH 19 Corpus Christi–Kingsville, TX 20 Dallas–Fort Worth, TX 21 Dayton–Springfield–Greenville, OH 22 Delaware 23 Denver–Aurora–Boulder, CO 24 Detroit–Warren–Flint, MI 25 El Paso, TX 26 Grand Rapids–Muskegon–Holland, MI 27 Greensboro–Winston–Salem–High Point, NC 28 Greenville–Anderson–Seneca, SC 29 Hartford–West Hartford–Willimantic, CT 30 Honolulu, HI 31 Houston–Baytown–Huntsville, TX 32 Idaho 33 Indianapolis–Anderson–Columbus, IN 34 Iowa 35 Jacksonville, FL 36 Kansas City, MO–KS (MO part) 37 Kansas City–Overland Park–Kansas City, MO–KS, MO–KS (KS part) 38 Lake Charles–Jennings, LA 39 Laredo, TX 40 Las Vegas–Paradise–Pahrump, NV 41 Los Angeles–Long Beach–Riverside, CA 42 Louisville/Jefferson County–Elizabethtown–Scottsburg, KY–IN, KY–IN (KY part) 43 Maine 44 Memphis, TN–MS–AR (TN part) 45 Miami–Fort Lauderdale–Pompano Beach, FL 46 Milwaukee–Racine–Waukesha, WI 47 Minneapolis–St. Paul–St. Cloud, MN–WI (MN part) 48 Mississippi 49 Mobile–Daphne–Fairhope, AL 50 Montana 51 Nashville–Davidson–Murfreesboro–Columbia, TN 52 Nebraska 53 New Hampshire 54 New Mexico 55 New Orleans–Metairie–Bogalusa, LA 56 New York–Newark–Bridgeport, NY–NJ–CT–PA (CT part) 57 New York–Newark–Bridgeport, NY–NJ–CT–PA (NJ part) 58 New York–Newark–Bridgeport, NY–NJ–CT–PA (NY part) 59 North Dakota 60 Oklahoma City–Shawnee, OK 61 Orlando–Deltona–Daytona Beach, FL 62 Philadelphia–Camden–Vineland, PA–NJ–DE–MD (NJ part) 63 Philadelphia–Camden–Vineland, PA–NJ–DE–MD (PA part) 64 Phoenix–Mesa–Scottsdale, AZ 65 Pittsburgh–New Castle, PA 66 Portland–Vancouver–Beaverton, OR–WA (OR part) 67 Raleigh–Durham–Cary, NC 68 Remainder of Alabama 69 Remainder of Arizona 70 Remainder of California 71 Remainder of Colorado 72 Remainder of Connecticut 73 Remainder of Florida 74 Remainder of Georgia 75 Remainder of Hawaii 76 Remainder of Illinois 77 Remainder of Indiana 78 Remainder of Kansas 79 Remainder of Kentucky 80 Remainder of Louisiana 81 Remainder of Maryland 82 Remainder of Massachusetts 83 Remainder of Michigan 84 Remainder of Minnesota 85 Remainder of Missouri 86 Remainder of Nevada 87 Remainder of New Jersey 88 Remainder of New York 89 Remainder of North Carolina 90 Remainder of Ohio 91 Remainder of Oklahoma 92 Remainder of Oregon 93 Remainder of Pennsylvania 94 Remainder of South Carolina 95 Remainder of Tennessee 96 Remainder of Texas 97 Remainder of Utah 98 Remainder of Virginia 99 Remainder of Washington 100 Remainder of Wisconsin 101 Rhode Island 102 Richmond, VA 103 Rochester–Batavia–Seneca Falls, NY 104 Sacramento–Arden–Arcade–Truckee, CA–NV (CA part) 105 Salt Lake City–Ogden–Clearfield, UT 106 San Antonio, TX 107 San Diego–Carlsbad–San Marcos, CA 108 San Jose–San Francisco–Oakland, CA 109 Savannah–Hinesville–Fort Stewart, GA 110 Seattle–Tacoma–Olympia, WA 111 South Dakota 112 St. Louis–St. Charles–Farmington, MO–IL (IL part) 113 St. Louis–St. Charles–Farmington, MO–IL (MO part) 114 Tampa–St. Petersburg–Clearwater, FL 115 Tucson, AZ 116 Tulsa–Bartlesville, OK 117 Vermont 118 Virginia Beach–Norfolk–Newport News, VA–NC (VA part) 119 Washington–Arlington–Alexandria, DC–VA–MD–WV (DC part) 120 Washington–Arlington–Alexandria, DC–VA–MD–WV (MD part) 121 Washington–Baltimore–Northern Virginia, DC–MD–VA–WV (VA part) 122 West Virginia 123 Wyoming No. Port Corresponding CFS area 1 Alexandria Bay, NY Remainder of New York 2 Atlanta, GA Atlanta–Sandy Springs–Gainesville (GA part) 3 Baltimore, MD Baltimore–Towson, MD 4 Baton Rouge, LA Baton Rouge, LA 5 Beaumont, TX Beaumont, TX 6 Bellingham, WA Remainder of Washington 7 Blaine, WA Remainder of Washington 8 Boston, MA Boston–Worcester–Manchester (MA part) 9 Brownsville, TX Remainder of Texas 10 Brunswick, GA Remainder of Georgia 11 Buffalo, NY Buffalo–Cheektowaga–Tonawanda, NY 12 Calais, ME Maine 13 Camden, NJ Philadelphia–Camden–Vineland (NJ part) 14 Champlain–Rouses Point, NY Remainder of New York 15 Charleston, SC Charleston, SC 16 Chester, PA Philadelphia–Camden–Vineland (PA part) 17 Chicago, IL Chicago–Naperville–Michigan City (IL part) 18 Cleveland, OH Cleveland–Akron–Elyria, OH 19 Columbia–Snake Remainder of Oregon 20 Corpus Christi, TX Corpus Christi, TX 21 Dallas–Fort Worth, TX Dallas–Fort Worth, TX 22 Davenport, IA–Rock Island, IL Iowa 23 Detroit, MI Detroit–Warren–Flint, MI 24 Duluth, MN Remainder of Minnesota 25 Duluth, MN–Superior, WI Remainder of Minnesota 26 Eastport, ME Maine 27 El Paso, TX El Paso, TX 28 El Segundo, CA Los Angeles–Long Beach–Riverside, CA 29 Everett, WA Seattle–Tacoma–Olympia, WA 30 Fernandina, FL Jacksonville, FL 31 Freeport, TX Houston–Baytown–Huntsville, TX 32 Galveston, TX Houston–Baytown–Huntsville, TX 33 Gramercy, LA Remainder of Louisiana 34 Grand Haven, MI Grand Rapids–Wyoming–Holland, MI 35 Gulfport, MS Mississippi 36 Houston–Galveston, TX Houston–Baytown–Huntsville, TX 37 Jacksonville, FL Jacksonville, FL 38 Kalama, WA Remainder of Washington 39 Lake Charles, LA Lake Charles, LA 40 Laredo, TX Laredo, TX 41 Long Beach, CA Los Angeles–Long Beach–Riverside, CA 42 Longview, WA Remainder of Washington 43 Los Angeles, CA Los Angeles–Long Beach–Riverside, CA 44 Memphis, TN Memphis (TN part) 45 Miami, FL Miami–Fort Lauderdale–Miami Beach, FL 46 Milwaukee, WI Milwaukee–Racine–Waukesha, WI 47 Minneapolis, MN Minneapolis–St Paul–St Cloud (MN part) 48 Mobile, AL Mobile, AL 49 New Orleans, LA New Orleans–Metairie–Bogalusa, LA 50 New York City, NY New York–Newark–Bridgeport (NY part) 51 Newark, NJ New York–Newark–Bridgeport (NJ part) 52 Newport News, VA Virginia Beach–Norfolk–Newport News (VA part) 53 Norfolk, VA Virginia Beach–Norfolk–Newport News (VA part) 54 Norfolk–Newport News, VA Virginia Beach–Norfolk–Newport News (VA part) 55 Oakland, CA San Jose–San Francisco–Oakland, CA 56 Ogdensburg, NY Remainder of New York 57 Orlando, FL Orlando–The Villages, FL 58 Panama City, FL Remainder of Florida 59 Pascagoula, MS Mississippi 60 Pensacola, FL Remainder of Florida 61 Perth Amboy, NJ New York–Newark–Bridgeport (NJ part) 62 Philadelphia, PA Philadelphia–Camden–Vineland (PA part) 63 Port Angeles, WA Remainder of Washington 64 Port Arthur, TX Beaumont, TX 65 Port Canaveral, FL Remainder of Florida 66 Port Everglades, FL Miami–Fort Lauderdale–Miami Beach, FL 67 Port Hueneme, CA Los Angeles–Long Beach–Riverside, CA 68 Port Huron, MI Detroit–Warren–Flint, MI 69 Port Lavaca, TX Remainder of Texas 70 Port Manatee, FL Remainder of Florida 71 Portland Intl Airport, WA Portland–Vancouver–Beaverton (OR part) 72 Portland, ME Maine 73 Portland, OR Portland–Vancouver–Beaverton(OR part) 74 Richmond–Petersburg, VA Richmond, VA 75 Rochester, NY Rochester–Batavia–Seneca Falls, NY 76 Sacramento, CA Sacramento–Arden–Arcade–Truckee (CA part) 77 San Diego, CA San Diego–Carlsbad–San Marcos, CA 78 San Francisco, CA San Jose–San Francisco–Oakland, CA 79 San Pablo Bay, CA San Jose–San Francisco–Oakland, CA 80 Sault Ste Marie, MI Remainder of Michigan 81 Savannah, GA Savannah,GA 82 Seattle, WA Seattle–Tacoma–Olympia, WA 83 Stockton, CA Remainder of California 84 Tacoma, WA Seattle–Tacoma–Olympia, WA 85 Tampa, FL Tampa–St Petersburg–Clearwater, FL 86 Toledo–Sandusky, OH Remainder of Ohio 87 Tucson, AZ Tucson, AZ 88 Vancouver, WA Portland–Vancouver–Beaverton (OR part) 89 Washington, DC Washington–Arlington–Alexandria (DC part) 90 West Palm Beach, FL Miami–Fort Lauderdale–Miami Beach, FL 91 Wilmington, DE Delaware 92 Wilmington, NC Remainder of North Carolina Column 2 lists the ports of the United States in alphabetical order. The CFS area that encompasses each port is provided in Column 3.
Category Food items 01 Animals and fish (live) Live bovine animals Live swine Live poultry Live fish, including live eels Other live animals 02 Cereal grains (including seed) Wheat Corn Rye Barley Oats Grain sorghum Other cereal grains, including rice 03 Agricultural products, except for animal feed Potatoes, fresh or chilled Tomatoes, fresh or chilled Onions, shallots, garlic, leeks, and onion sets, fresh or chilled Lettuce, fresh or chilled Leguminous vegetables, fresh or chilled Other fresh or chilled vegetables Leguminous vegetables, dried Other dried vegetables, Oranges, fresh or chilled Grapefruit, fresh or chilled Other citrus fruit, fresh or chilled Bananas and plantains, fresh or chilled Grapes, fresh or chilled Melons, fresh or chilled Other fresh or chilled fruit Dried grapes Other dried fruit Nuts in the shell Shelled nuts not further processed Soybeans Peanuts, unroasted Linseed (flaxseed) Colza (rape) or canola seeds Sunflower seeds Cotton seeds Mustard seeds Other oil seeds and nuts Bulbs and roots and similar products, live trees and other plants, and mushroom spawn Other seeds for sowing Fresh-cut flowers Tobacco, not stemmed or stripped Stemmed and partially stemmed tobacco Raw cotton (not carded or combed) Unprocessed coffee and unfermented tea Sugar beet and sugar cane Other agricultural products, including cotton linters, seaweed, and forestry products 04 Animal feed and products of animal origin Cereal straw or husks and forage products Inedible flours, meals, and pellets of meat, fish, or seafood, and greaves Bran, sharps, and other residues of cereals or leguminous plants Oil cake and other solid residues from the manufacture of vegetable fats or oils Eggs in the shell Raw hides and skins Shorn or pulled greasy wool, animal hair not carded or combed, silkworm cocoons suitable for reeling, and raw silk Other residues and waste from the food industries used in animal feeding, and products of animal origin Dog or cat food put up for retail sale Other animal feed preparations, including premixes and supplements 05 Meat, fish, and seafood, and their preparations Meat except poultry, fresh or chilled Meat except poultry, frozen Poultry, fresh or chilled Poultry, frozen Meat, salted, in brine, dried, or smoked and pig or poultry fat, not rendered Fresh or chilled fish Frozen fish Fish, salted, in brine, dried, or smoked and edible fish meal Aquatic invertebrates, live, fresh, chilled, frozen, salted, in brine, or dried and crustaceans in shell cooked by steaming or by boiling in water Preparations, extracts, and juices of meat including poultry Preparations, extracts, and juices of fish or seafood (aquatic invertebrates) 06 Milled grain products and preparations, and bakery products Wheat flour, groats, and meal Malt Milled rice Corn flour, groats, and meal Starches and modified starches Inulin; wheat gluten; milled cereals and other vegetables; and grains otherwise worked Pasta (including stuffed, canned, frozen, or dried) and couscous Breakfast cereal foods, swelled or roasted Mixes and doughs for preparing bakery products, including batters. Rice preparations, instant rice, and partially cooked rice Food preparations of cereals, flour, starch, or milk, other, including tapioca, malt extract, ice cream and milk shake mixes, puddings, and infant formula Baked snack foods Frozen baked products, including quiche, pizza, and waffles Perishable baked products Dry baked products 07 Other prepared foodstuffs, and fats and oils Milk and cream, unconcentrated and unsweetened Milk and cream, in powder, granules, or other solid forms Other milk and cream Cheese and curds Ice cream, ice milk, sherbets, and ices Butter and other fats and oils derived from milk Other dairy product Frozen vegetables and vegetable preparations Potato chips Other processed or prepared vegetables Jams, jellies, marmalades, fruit or nut purées, and fruit or nut pastes Processed or prepared nuts, peanuts, or seeds Other processed or prepared fruit, including canned fruit Frozen fruit and vegetable juices Nonfrozen fruit and vegetable juices Processed coffee Processed (fermented) tea Spices, including unprocessed spices Animal fats and oils and their fractions, not chemically modified Soybean oil Colza (canola) oil Corn oil Other fixed vegetable fats and oils and their fractions, other, not chemically modified Nonliquid margarine Shortening Other chemically modified fats and oils, animal or vegetable waxes, and prepared edible fats Flours and meals of oil seeds Raw cane or beet sugar, in solid form Refined cane or beet sugar and chemically pure sucrose, in solid form Glucose (corn sugar) and glucose syrup (corn syrup) Sugar confectionery not containing cocoa, including glacé products Chocolate confectionery Cocoa beans, paste, butter, and powder, and cocoa preparations Glucose (corn sugar) and glucose syrup (corn syrup) Sugar confectionery not containing cocoa, including glacé products Chocolate confectionery Cocoa beans, paste, butter, and powder, and cocoa preparations Tomato sauces Sauces and sauce mixes, prepared mustard, mustard flours and meals, and mixed condiments and seasonings, including salad dressings Soups and broths (including mixes), and baby or dietetic foods Syrups and concentrates used in food preparations or beverages Flavoring powders, extracts, or essences Processed eggs including egg albumin Yeasts and baking powder Sugar syrups with added flavors and/or colors, including table syrups Other edible preparations, including protein concentrates and vinegar Other sweetened or flavored water Water, neither sweetened nor flavored Other ice and nonalcoholic beverages The seven SCTG food categories are numbered 01–07. Specific food items contained within each SCTG food category are listed.
- Table 1.
VGC estimates for the SCTG food commodity groups in each of the overexploited aquifers of the United States
SCTG code SCTG name CV, m3/ton HP, m3/ton ME, m3/ton 01 Animals and fish (live) 1,570.7 303.7 9.0 02 Cereal grains (including seed) 271.5 68.4 129.4 03 Agricultural products except for animal feed (other) 66.2 63.9 76.5 04 Animal feed and products of animal origin 134.7 27.9 1.3 05 Meat, fish, and seafood and their preparations 1,984.7 367.4 9.9 06 Milled grain products and preparations and bakery products 107.7 47.1 369.7 07 Other prepared foodstuffs and fats and oils 246.5 164.7 57.2 Units are cubic meters of groundwater consumed per metric ton of production.
- Table 2.
Countries that are most reliant on cereals produced with groundwater from the CV, HP, and ME aquifers
Country Domestic cereal supply, 1,000 tons Total cereal imports, 1,000 tons Aquifer fraction of domestic cereal supply, % Aquifer fraction of cereal imports, % Aquifer fraction of cereal imports from United States, % United States 303,016 — 18.5 — — Taiwan 7,268 6,336 10.0 11.5 13.4 Japan 32,961 26,425 9.2 11.4 15.4 Panama 863 649 9.1 12.1 13.4 Costa Rica 1,153 1,133 7.9 8.0 8.9 Dominican Republic 2,180 1,714 5.8 7.4 8.3 Colombia 8,396 5,206 4.5 7.2 9.6 South Korea 16,401 12,660 4.4 5.7 12.0 Honduras 1,388 663 3.9 8.2 8.2 Israel 3,436 3,007 3.4 3.9 8.9 Ecuador 3,205 1,188 3.0 8.2 15.1 Syria 6,746 1,845 2.9 10.8 12.0 World total 2,120,603 345,753 2.7 2.5 8.6 Domestic cereal supply and total cereal import data (tons) were collected from the FAO (45). Countries are ranked in descending order by the fraction of their domestic cereal supply that originates from these three aquifers (column 4). Island nations that import more cereal than is required for their domestic supply have been excluded (i.e., St. Vincent and the Grenadines, Trinidad and Tobago, Grenada, Jamaica, and Barbados).
Data supplements
Supporting Information
US virtual groundwater transfers
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