Reduction in kelp forests altered sea otter and sea urchin behavior, restructuring mechanisms of ecosystem control.
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Edited by Cameron Carter, University of California Davis Centre for Neuroscience, Sacramento, CA, and accepted by the Editorial Board October 13, 2014 (received for review August 8, 2014)
Significance
The existing literature on the long-term effects of marijuana on the brain provides an inconsistent picture (i.e., presence or absence of structural changes) due to methodological differences across studies. We overcame these methodological issues by collecting multimodal measures in a large group of chronic marijuana using adults with a wide age range that allows for characterization of changes across lifespan without developmental or maturational biases as in other studies. Our findings suggest that chronic marijuana use is associated with complex neuroadaptive processes and that onset and duration of use have unique effects on these processes.
Abstract
Questions surrounding the effects of chronic marijuana use on brain structure continue to increase. To date, however, findings remain inconclusive. In this comprehensive study that aimed to characterize brain alterations associated with chronic marijuana use, we measured gray matter (GM) volume via structural MRI across the whole brain by using voxel-based morphology, synchrony among abnormal GM regions during resting state via functional connectivity MRI, and white matter integrity (i.e., structural connectivity) between the abnormal GM regions via diffusion tensor imaging in 48 marijuana users and 62 age- and sex-matched nonusing controls. The results showed that compared with controls, marijuana users had significantly less bilateral orbitofrontal gyri volume, higher functional connectivity in the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) network, and higher structural connectivity in tracts that innervate the OFC (forceps minor) as measured by fractional anisotropy (FA). Increased OFC functional connectivity in marijuana users was associated with earlier age of onset. Lastly, a quadratic trend was observed suggesting that the FA of the forceps minor tract initially increased following regular marijuana use but decreased with protracted regular use. This pattern may indicate differential effects of initial and chronic marijuana use that may reflect complex neuroadaptive processes in response to marijuana use. Despite the observed age of onset effects, longitudinal studies are needed to determine causality of these effects.
Footnotes
- ↵1To whom correspondence should be addressed. Email: francesca.filbey{at}utdallas.edu.
Author contributions: F.M.F. and V.D.C. designed research; F.M.F. and J.S. performed research; S.A., J.S.S., E.D., and A.C. analyzed data; and F.M.F. and S.A. wrote the paper.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
This article is a PNAS Direct Submission. C.C. is a guest editor invited by the Editorial Board.
This article contains supporting information online at www.pnas.org/lookup/suppl/doi:10.1073/pnas.1415297111/-/DCSupplemental.
Freely available online through the PNAS open access option.
Marijuana and the orbitofrontal cortex
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