Host-specific induction of Escherichia coli fitness genes during human urinary tract infection
Edited by Scott J. Hultgren, Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, and approved November 18, 2014 (received for review August 18, 2014)
Significance
Escherichia coli is the most common cause of urinary tract infections (UTI) in humans. This bacterium is a major global public health concern because it is becoming resistant to currently available antibiotics. Therefore, it is imperative to develop new treatment and prevention strategies against this bacterium. However, the processes that promote survival of this bacterium within the human urinary tract during UTI are not clearly understood. Here we identify E. coli genes that promote survival within the urinary tract during naturally occurring UTI in women. Genes identified in this study represent targets for development of new therapies against UTI caused by E. coli.
Abstract
Uropathogenic Escherichia coli (UPEC) is the predominant etiological agent of uncomplicated urinary tract infection (UTI), manifested by inflammation of the urinary bladder, in humans and is a major global public health concern. Molecular pathogenesis of UPEC has been primarily examined using murine models of UTI. Translational research to develop novel therapeutics against this major pathogen, which is becoming increasingly antibiotic resistant, requires a thorough understanding of mechanisms involved in pathogenesis during human UTIs. Total RNA-sequencing (RNA-seq) and comparative transcriptional analysis of UTI samples to the UPEC isolates cultured in human urine and laboratory medium were used to identify novel fitness genes that were specifically expressed during human infection. Evidence for UPEC genes involved in ion transport, including copper efflux, nickel and potassium import systems, as key fitness factors in uropathogenesis were generated using an experimental model of UTI. Translational application of this study was investigated by targeting Cus, a bacterial copper efflux system. Copper supplementation in drinking water reduces E. coli colonization in the urinary bladder of mice. Additionally, our results suggest that anaerobic processes in UPEC are involved in promoting fitness during UTI in humans. In summary, RNA-seq was used to establish the transcriptional signature in UPEC during naturally occurring, community acquired UTI in women and multiple novel fitness genes used by UPEC during human infection were identified. The repertoire of UPEC genes involved in UTI presented here will facilitate further translational studies to develop innovative strategies against UTI caused by UPEC.
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Urinary tract infection (UTI) caused by uropathogenic Escherichia coli (UPEC) is a global public health concern, especially for women (1). In the United States alone, 7–11 million cases of UTI are reported annually resulting in expenditures of $3.5 billion (2, 3). UPEC is the predominant cause (75–95% of cases) of UTIs in otherwise healthy individuals (1). UTIs caused by UPEC are one of the most common indications for antibiotic prescription and rapid increase in antibiotic resistance in UPEC (4) requires development of next-generation therapeutic agents (5). A targeted approach that selectively diminishes in vivo fitness of pathogens has been proposed as a promising alternative to treatment with conventional antibiotics (6). The molecular mechanisms of UPEC pathogenesis have been extensively investigated, primarily using murine models (7–9). Identification of next-generation therapeutics against UPEC, however, requires a thorough knowledge of the fitness and virulence mechanisms involved in the pathogenesis of community-acquired UTIs in humans.
Transcriptional profiling, a powerful functional genomic tool, can be used to elucidate host–pathogen interaction during infection (10, 11). UPEC represents a heterogeneous group of bacterial strains (12, 13) and DNA microarrays, based on the sequence of a pyelonephritis strain CFT073, were used in a previous study to determine UPEC genes highly expressed during human infection (11). A clinic-to-laboratory approach was used in this study to identify novel human UTI-specific genes expressed by UPEC during naturally occurring infection in women. Total RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) was used to overcome the limitations of hybridization-based technology (14) and probe the transcriptome of UPEC in urine from patients with acute uncomplicated UTI. We have identified UPEC fitness genes that are not only highly expressed during human UTIs, but are also required for optimal colonization in a mouse model of UTI. This study demonstrates the importance of bacterial copper efflux systems during UTI and offers evidence for the protective role of copper against UPEC colonization in a mouse model. Previous studies have revealed the importance of oxidative stress resistance mechanisms in UPEC in the pathogenesis of UTIs. Evidence for the role of UPEC genes involved in adaptation to low-oxygen conditions during UTIs is presented here. These novel fitness genes represent candidates for evaluation as targets for development of therapeutics and prophylactics against UPEC.
Results
Identification of Differentially Expressed UPEC Genes During UTI.
Women presenting at the University of Michigan Health Service Clinic with symptoms of cystitis were invited to participate in this study. Informed consent was obtained from all voluntary participants (ages 18–50; median = 21 y). A total of 42 (48.8%) urine samples collected from 86 participants were culture-positive for uropathogens and 38 (90.5%) urine samples contained E. coli (≥105 CFU/mL). Additionally, 7.7% and 15.3% of these UPEC isolates were resistant to ciprofloxacin and trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole, respectively, two first-line antimicrobial agents currently used in the treatment of UTI (4). Citrobacter freundii, Citrobacter koseri, Enterobacter aerogenes, and Proteus mirabilis were other uropathogens isolated in this study, but not characterized further. Because participants were prescribed antibacterial agents upon clinical examination, only initial urine samples were collected. Total RNA was isolated from de-identified UTI urine samples and corresponding clinical isolates cultured in urine from healthy volunteers or laboratory medium.
E. coli isolates HM26, HM27, HM46, HM65, and HM69 were chosen for RNA-seq because they yielded high quantities of quality RNA. These isolates were also found to successfully colonize the urinary tract of CBA/J mice during experimental UTI (Fig. 1) at levels comparable to UPEC strain CFT073. Genomes of these five UPEC isolates were sequenced and phylogenomic analysis demonstrated that these isolates belong to two different E. coli phylogroups (B2 and D) (12). BLAST score ratio (BSR) analysis was used to probe the degree of conservation of protein encoding sequences (15). Conservation (BSR values ≥ 0.8 indicate protein encoding genes that are highly conserved, values ≥ 0.4 but < 0.8 indicate similar but divergent, and values < 0.4 indicate a sequence is absent) of each predicted protein from UPEC strain CFT073 to UPEC strains 536, F11, UMN026, UTI89, HM26, HM27, HM46, HM65, and HM69, reveals that UPEC are genetically heterogeneous (Fig. S1) and is consistent with previous findings (12, 13).
Fig. 1.
RNA-seq reads (∼7–38 million) from human UTI samples mapped to the UPEC genomes with the exception of HM26 (∼0.4 million). A summary of RNA-sequencing and genome alignment results is presented in Table 1. Because only one UTI sample was available from each patient, a stringent cut-off of fourfold change in expression was used to delineate differences in transcript abundance between UTI, urine, and lysogeny broth (LB).
Table 1.
| Isolate | Condition | Reads | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Total | Mapped* | % Mapped | ||
| HM26 | HUTI | 22750524 | 430632 | 1.89 |
| LB | 73227334 | 53796646 | 73.47 | |
| UR | 64421626 | 38235680 | 59.35 | |
| HM27 | HUTI | 72913406 | 11965706 | 16.41 |
| LB | 69738674 | 51498928 | 73.85 | |
| UR | 102494326 | 61908242 | 60.4 | |
| HM46 | HUTI | 67767992 | 6972582 | 10.29 |
| LB | 80819130 | 52305182 | 64.72 | |
| UR | 87677548 | 53898016 | 61.47 | |
| HM65 | HUTI | 79243432 | 37893778 | 47.82 |
| LB | 75942540 | 52393964 | 68.99 | |
| UR | 79179256 | 49011996 | 61.9 | |
| HM69 | HUTI | 79210084 | 25070852 | 31.65 |
| LB | 150290446 | 54236110 | 36.09 | |
| UR | 70072174 | 44453412 | 63.44 | |
HUTI, human urinary tract infection; LB, lysogeny broth; and UR, human urine.
*
Number of reads mapped to native genomes.
Iron uptake gene transcript levels were used to validate the results of RNA-seq analyses. Previous studies have demonstrated that urine is an iron-limited milieu (16), and iron uptake genes in UPEC are highly expressed in the RNA samples isolated from UPEC collected from UTI urine samples and culture in urine from healthy volunteers (11). RNA-seq results are consistent with these findings; iron uptake genes were among highly expressed genes in UTI compared with LB (Fig. S2A and Dataset S1). Levels of iron uptake gene transcripts were not higher in UTI compared with urine (Fig. S2A) because urine itself is a documented iron-limited environment (16). Next, RNA-seq results were independently confirmed using qRT-PCR on select genes, not involved in iron uptake, in HM17, HM26, HM27, and HM46 (Fig. S2B). After successful validation of RNA-seq, we sought to identify UPEC transcripts that are abundant in UTI samples, compared with culture in urine of healthy volunteers and in laboratory medium (Fig. 2A). UPEC transcripts that were >fourfold higher in UTI samples, compared with urine or LB, are delineated as UTI-specific genes (Fig. 2B), in contrast to urine-specific genes whose transcripts were found in high levels in urine, compared with LB (Fig. 2).
Fig. 2.
UPEC Genes Expressed During Human Infection Contribute to Fitness During UTI.
Selective expression of a gene implicates its involvement in adaptation, but not necessarily its role in survival within a particular niche. In this report, genes that contribute to wild-type level of survival of UPEC during UTI in a mouse model of infection are referred to as fitness genes. A subset of UTI-specific genes with >fourfold change in transcript levels in at least three UTI samples (Dataset S1) and regulated at transcriptional level was selected for further investigation (Table S1). Isogenic mutants lacking select genes, including cus (copper efflux), eut (ethanolamine uptake), fdhF (formate dehydrogenase H), kdp (potassium import system), and nik (nickel import) (Table S1), in UPEC strain CFT073 (17) were constructed using lambda red recombineering (18) (Fig. S3). Relative fitness was assessed in a mouse model of ascending UTI (19) and competitive indices were calculated based on tissue bacterial load (Table 2).
Table 2.
| Mutant | Function | Competitive indices | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Bladder | Kidney | ||
| cus | Copper resistance | 0.04 | 0.39 |
| cys | Thiosulfate uptake | 1.83 | 1.83 |
| eutR | Ethanolamine uptake and metabolism | 0.049 | 0.44 |
| fdhF | Formate dehydrogenase | 0.42 | 0.42 |
| kdp | Potassium uptake | 0.33 | 0.26 |
| nik | Nickel uptake | 0.29 | 0.43 |
| phnR | Phosphonate uptake and metabolism | 1.47 | 2.64 |
| tau | Taurine uptake | 2.18 | 1.33 |
| wcaLM | Colanic acid biosynthesis | 2.23 | 2.23 |
Statistically significant fitness defect (P < 0.05, Wilcoxon signed rank test) is denoted in boldface.
A copper efflux system, Cus, is involved in resistance to Cu toxicity in E. coli (20). Transcripts of cognate two-component regulatory system (cusRS) and structural genes (cusCFBA) comprising the Cus system were found at higher levels during UTI compared with urine in RNA-seq (Fig. 3A and Dataset S1) and quantitative RT-PCR (qRT-PCR) (Fig. S4). Urine from UTI patients contains higher quantities of Cu compared with urine from healthy subjects (Fig. S4). A cus mutant displayed enhanced susceptibility to Cu toxicity under anaerobic conditions (Fig. 3B). Coinfection experiments revealed that the Cus system is required for optimal fitness of UPEC during colonization in a murine model of UTI (Table 2). Transcripts of other copper detoxification genes, copA and cueO and their positive transcriptional regulator cueR, were also found at higher levels during UTI (Fig. 3A), compared with culture in urine.
Fig. 3.
Because cus genes are specifically expressed human infection and a cus mutant exhibits compromised fitness in a mouse model of UTI, we hypothesized that copper supplementation might minimize colonization by UPEC. Copper was added to drinking water for 8 d before infection and mice were inoculated with UPEC CFT073. Mice in the copper supplemented group were colonized by lower levels of UPEC (Fig. 3C), indicating that copper supplementation can ameliorate colonization of UPEC. Serum chemistry did not reveal an increase in liver enzyme or copper levels, but copper content of urine was elevated in mice on supplemental copper, compared with the control group (Fig. S4).
Transcripts of high-affinity nickel uptake genes, nikABCDER, were found at high levels during human UTI (Fig. 4A). Transcription of nik genes are repressed by NikR in the presence of excess nickel and positively regulated by Fnr, a transcriptional regulator governing transition to anaerobiosis (21). Nickel is a cofactor for hydrogenases in the formate hydrogen lyase (FHL) complex and FHL is involved in growth under anaerobic conditions (21). Transcript of the FHL-associated fdhF was also found at high levels during UTI (Fig. 4A). Transcripts of a transcriptional regulator of FHL genes (fhlA) were also found at high levels during UTI (Fig. 4A). Mutants lacking either nik or fdhF genes were both compromised in fitness in the mouse model of UTI (Table 2). Collectively, these findings suggest that UPEC experiences oxygen depletion resulting in an increased need for nickel during UTI.
Fig. 4.
Potassium import is mediated by three uptake systems in E. coli (22). Transcripts of two-component regulatory system (kdpDE) and structural components (kdpABC) comprising the inducible potassium import system, Kdp, were found at higher levels during human UTI (Fig. 4B). However, trk and kup, other potassium uptake system genes, were not differentially regulated in response to growth within the human urinary tract (Dataset S1). Additionally, the kdp mutant exhibits reduced fitness during colonization of murine urinary bladder and kidney, suggesting an increased demand for potassium during UTI (Table 2). K and Ni concentration in the urine samples from UTI patients, however, was not statistically different from that of control (Fig. S4).
Ethanolamine is a major component of phospholipids in the host cell membranes (23). Genes involved in regulation, uptake, and metabolism of ethanolamine were highly expressed in HM26, HM27, and HM46 (Fig. S5A and Dataset S1). Transcripts of all genes in this cluster were abundant during UTI and the positive transcriptional regulator of the ethanolamine gene cluster, encoded by eutR, is depicted as an example in Fig. S5A. A mutant lacking the entire ethanolamine gene cluster (∼15 Kb) exhibits a fitness defect in the urinary bladder, indicating that the ability to metabolize ethanolamine might promote fitness during UTI (Table 2).
UPEC Genes That Might Not Contribute to in Vivo Fitness.
Transcripts of colanic acid biosynthesis (24), phosphonate utilization, sulfate/thiosulfate uptake, taurine uptake, and alkanesulfonate uptake (25) genes were highly expressed during human UTIs (Fig. 2B, Fig. S5, and Dataset S1). Growth of cys, tau, and ssu mutants lacking sulfate/thiosulfate, taurine, and alkanesulfonate uptake systems, respectively, and cysB, a cysteine auxotroph, in a sulfur-limited medium (26) confirmed the loss of function phenotype in these mutants (Fig. S6). Coinfection experiments in a mouse model of UTI, however, did not reveal a measurable loss of fitness for these mutants (Table 2), indicating that these genes do not affect fitness, at least in the mouse model under our experimental conditions.
Known UPEC Virulence Genes Highly Expressed During UTI.
Transcripts of some previously established virulence genes were abundant during UTI (Fig. 5 and Dataset S1). Transcripts of type 1 fimbrial tip adhesin (fimH), capsule export (kpsD), negative regulator of phosphate uptake (phoU), transcriptional antiterminator (rfaH), GMP synthase (guaA), and periplasmic dipeptide-binding protein (dppA) were selectively expressed during UTI but not as a milieu-specific response to culture in urine (Fig. 5 A and C). Expression of a GMP synthase gene during UTI suggests a surge in GMP demand during infection (Fig. 5A). Consistent with previous findings (11, 27), flagellin gene (fliC) was down-regulated under all conditions tested. Because of the differences in osmolarity between urine and LB, periplasmic osmoprotectant (glycine betaine) binding protein (proV) was up-regulated both during UTI and culture in urine compared with LB (Fig. 5). Other known virulence genes, such as those encoding P fimbriae, hemolysin A, and succinate dehydrogenase, did not meet the threshold of fourfold change in transcript level (Dataset S1).
Fig. 5.
Discussion
Although pathogenesis of bacterial UTIs, especially UPEC, has been well studied, little is known about the roles of known and putative fitness factors and global transcriptome during uncomplicated UTI in humans. Here, RNA-seq, a sequencing-based transcriptional profiling technique, was used to detect bacterial fitness determinants in urine from female patients with naturally occurring uncomplicated UTIs. RNA-seq has been used to measure pathogen transcript levels in experimental models of Vibrio cholerae infection (28) and Campylobacter jejuni colonization (29). Previously, DNA microarrays were used to define transcriptional profiles of UPEC during human infection (11). However, intrinsic limitations of hybridization-based technology, inherent genetic heterogeneity in UPEC, and variable amount of host-nucleic acid in the samples precluded direct comparison of transcript levels.
Recently, RNA-seq was applied to probe gene expression in UPEC in an older patient population (>60 y), who are more likely to suffer from other comorbidities (30), whereas our samples represent uncomplicated UTI from otherwise healthy young women (median age = 21 y). RNA-seq reads were mapped to a consortium of known E. coli genes (30) and we used the native genomes of these isolates to determine transcriptional signature during UTI. Additionally, E. coli isolates from phylogroups A and B1 encompassing fecal commensal strains were included, along with isolates from B2 and D phylogroups, which comprise known UPEC strains (30). In this study, we report identification of genes that are not only selectively expressed within urinary tract during UTI but are also involved in fitness in a mouse model of UTI.
Isolates cultured from UTI urine samples have been demonstrated to represent the dominant strain (31) and the dominant strain from each patient sample was used for RNA isolation in vitro. Voided urine from patients with UTI contains UPEC in various lifestyles, including planktonic (rod and filamentous morphotypes), sessile (adherent to exfoliated epithelial cells), and intracellular communities that are associated with the pathogenesis of cystitis (32). Because planktonic bacteria are the predominant morphotype, it is likely that UTI RNA samples are enriched in transcripts from planktonic cells. Differences in proportion of other morphotypes could account for heterogeneity in gene expression between patient samples, at least in part. UPEC in voided urine represents the closest surrogate to UPEC thriving in the bladder that can be obtained from humans and was used to probe the transcriptional state of UPEC during UTIs.
Mammalian hosts actively sequester iron and an intense competition ensues between host and pathogen for iron during infection (33). Previous studies have demonstrated that UPEC iron uptake genes are highly expressed during colonization (34) and UTIs in human (11) and murine hosts (27, 35, 36). Additionally, vaccination with iron uptake receptor proteins FyuA, Hma, IreA, and IutA protected mice against experimental UTI (37, 38). Hematuria (39) and massive urothelial exfoliation (40) are hallmarks of cystitis. UPEC, endowed with hemolysin and cytotoxic necrotizing factor (41), can potentially access iron and heme released from damaged cells. Our results indicate that urine from healthy volunteers is iron-limited compared with urine from UTI patients. However, bioavailability of Fe in urine from patients with UTI might be limited because of sequestration (33) and is still low enough to derepress Fur regulon genes.
Copper-mediated killing is a key innate immune mechanism used to hamper bacterial infection (42). E. coli uses three major mechanisms involving CopA, CueO, and Cus proteins to mitigate Cu toxicity (20). An additional Cu resistance mechanism was identified in UPEC, where yersiniabactin, a siderophore, binds and sequesters Cu (43) and Cu-yersiniabactin complexes exhibit superoxide dismutase activity (44). UPEC uses yersiniabactin to protect not only against copper but also against superoxide. A cueO mutant, defective in periplasmic multicopper oxidase, colonized a mouse model of UTI better than the wild-type strain (45). cus genes are expressed during human UTI, Cu levels are elevated in urine during UTI, and a cus mutant exhibits reduced fitness in a mouse model, indicating that Cus proteins are critical for wild-type level of fitness during UTI. CopA and CueO transcripts are not as strongly differentially expressed as Cus transcripts, suggesting a potential hierarchy in copper detoxification systems during UTI. Our results indicate that copper supplementation indeed reduces, but does not eliminate, UPEC colonization in a mouse model of UTI. Effects of lower inocula and follow-up on infected mice for a longer time remain to be tested.
Research on nickel in bacterial pathogenesis has focused on its role as a cofactor for urease activity. Mutants lacking nickel uptake genes in Helicobacter pylori (46) and Staphylococcus aureus (47) are attenuated in animal models of infection; this attenuation is attributed primarily to reduced urease activity. P. mirabilis mutants lacking urease genes are severely attenuated in a mouse model of UTI (48). UPEC are usually urease-negative; therefore, up-regulation of nickel uptake genes in conjunction with the FHL complex genes (fdhF and fhlA) and anaerobic Cu resistance system (Cus) suggests that UPEC might encounter oxygen depletion within the urinary bladder during UTI.
UPEC genes involved in regulating oxidative stress resistance, hfq (49), oxyR (50), and rpoS (51), are involved in fitness and colonization in murine models of UTI. Here, we present evidence for the role of UPEC genes involved in adaptation to low oxygen milieu during acute UTI. Recently, neutrophils were demonstrated to cause localized oxygen depletion during intestinal inflammation (52). Because massive influx of neutrophils is a hallmark of UTI (39), it is likely that infected urinary bladder is oxygen-depleted and UPEC up-regulates genes required for optimal survival under low oxygen conditions as an adaptation strategy. This study introduces a new dimension to the current model of pathogenesis, where adaptation to a low oxygen environment is critical for successful colonization of the bladder during active UTI. Because chemical modulators of hypoxia inducible factors, host-cell transcriptional regulators involved in adaptation to hypoxia, are available (53), the role of hypoxia inducible factors and hypoxia in UTI could be tested.
KdpE, a regulator of the Kdp potassium import system, also affects multiple virulence genes in enterohemorrhagic E. coli (54). Kdp genes are up-regulated during UTI and are required for wild-type level of fitness during experimental UTI. It is plausible that in addition to potassium import, indirect regulation of nonpotassium uptake genes by KdpE might also contribute to in vivo fitness in UPEC. Salmonella mutants defective in ethanolamine uptake and metabolism exhibit reduced fitness within intestines, especially during inflammation when there is substantial release of ethanolamine from host cell membranes (23). Enterohemorrhagic E. coli uses ethanolamine not only as a nitrogen source but also as a signal to regulate expression of virulence genes (55). Here, we demonstrate the role of ethanolamine uptake and metabolism genes in the survival of a bacterial pathogen during UTI.
Some of the transcripts found at high levels during human UTI, not surprisingly, do not appear to be involved in fitness in a mouse model of UTI. Because it is feasible to test the fitness of isogenic mutants only in a laboratory animal model of UTI, host-specific changes in transcript levels between humans and mice might account for this discrepancy. Although a measurable loss of fitness could not be demonstrated in our experiments, these genes might be involved in fitness in other niches or at different time points during infection.
Type 1 fimbria is a canonical virulence factor that mediates adhesion of UPEC to uroplakins, mannosylated host epithelial cell-surface receptors (40). Based on absolute expression, type 1 fimbrial genes were previously reported to be poorly expressed during human UTI (11), in contrast to a mouse model of UTI, where they are among the most highly expressed genes (27). Hagan et al. (11), also note that the high degree of variation observed in type 1 fimbrial genes might have interfered with accurate quantification of their expression using DNA microarrays. RNA-seq overcomes this limitation and here, relative expression was used to quantify differences in transcript levels. In our patient samples, the phase-variable type 1 fimbrial genes were up-regulated in some strains, but not expressed in others. These findings are based on the analysis of total bacterial RNA and further studies on planktonic, sessile, and intracellular communities during UTI are required to understand the heterogeneity in expression of type 1 fimbria.
In summary, we establish a repertoire of fitness genes in UPEC, a major human pathogen, during active UTI. Using independent lines of investigation, we have identified novel fitness factors and offer new insights into the conditions encountered by UPEC within the human urinary tract during acute uncomplicated UTI in women. A logical extension of this study is to identify and develop small molecules that selectively target these UTI-specific fitness mechanisms for treatment of uncomplicated UTIs.
Materials and Methods
Ethics Statement.
All procedures involving human samples were performed in accordance to the protocol (HUM00029910) approved by the Institutional Review Board at the University of Michigan. This protocol is compliant with the guidelines established by the National Institutes of Health for research using samples derived from human subjects. Additional information on UTI urine sample collection is provided in SI Materials and Methods. Mouse infection experiments were conducted according to the protocol (08999-3) approved by the University Committee on Use and Care of Animals at the University of Michigan. This protocol is in complete compliance with the guidelines for humane use and care of laboratory animals established by the National Institutes of Health.
Bacterial Strains and Culture Conditions.
Bacterial strains and isolates used in this study are listed in Table S1. Detailed methods are presented in SI Materials and Methods. Oligonucleotides used in this study are listed in Table S2.
RNA Isolation.
Cell pellets, obtained from centrifugation of human UTI urine samples, were stored at −80 °C until RNA extraction. Cell pellets were treated with Proteinase K (0.06 mAU/μL) and total RNA was extracted using RNeasy mini kit (Qiagen). Turbo DNase (Ambion) was used to remove contaminating bacterial and human DNA. RNA integrity was assessed using a Bioanalyzer (Agilent). For LB and human urine samples, RNAprotect was added to cultures in midexponential phase and RNA isolated from three biological replicates was mixed in equal quantity and treated as a single sample. Bacterial RNA content of HM26, HM27, HM46, HM65, and HM69 was enhanced by selective depletion of human RNA using the MICROBEnrich kit (Ambion).
RNA Sequencing.
The depleted RNA was used to generate sequencing libraries using the Ovation Prokaryotic RNA-Seq system (NuGen) and the Encore next-generation sequencing library system (NuGen). The libraries were sequenced using an Illumina HiSeq2000 by the Genome Resource Center at the Institute for Genome Sciences, University of Maryland, Baltimore, MD. Bioinformatic analyses and qRT-PCR are described in SI Materials and Methods.
BLAST Score Ratio.
BSR analysis was performed as previously described (15) and detailed methods are presented in SI Materials and Methods.
Mouse Model of Ascending UTI.
Five- to 6-wk-old (n = 10), female CBA/J mice (Harlan Laboratories) were transurethrally inoculated with 108 CFU of UPEC isolate. Mice were killed 48 h postinoculation (hpi); urine, homogenates of bladder and kidneys were plated using Autoplate 4000 (Spiral Biotech), and CFU counts were determined using Q-count (Spiral Biotech). A description of copper supplementation experiments in mice is provided in SI Materials and Methods.
Competitive Indices.
Coinfections with wild-type (CFT073) and isogenic mutant strains were conducted as described previously (19). Briefly, CBA/J mice (n = 10) were inoculated transurethrally with 108 CFU comprising wild-type and mutant strain in a 1:1 ratio. Mice were killed at 48 hpi; bladders and kidneys were collected, homogenized, and plated on plain and selective plates to enumerate wild-type and mutant CFUs. Competitive indices were determined as the ratio of mutant to wild-type in an organ to the ratio of mutant to wild-type in the inoculum. Results were analyzed by Wilcoxon-signed rank test and P < 0.05 was considered as a statistically significant difference.
Determination of Metal Levels.
Metal content in human urine samples were determined using an inductively coupled plasma mass spectrophotometer, as described in SI Materials and Methods.
Data Availability
Data deposition: Genome alignment files (BAM) and corresponding genome sequences (FASTA) for HM26, HM27, HM46, HM65, and HM69 have been archived in the NCBI short read archive (accession no. SRP041701).
Acknowledgments
We thank the staff at the University Health Service Clinical Laboratory for help with sample collection; members of the H.L.T.M. laboratory, especially Christopher Alteri, Cody Springman, Courtney Luterbach, and Michael Engstrom, for insightful discussions; and A. Shetty at the Institute for Genome Sciences for technical assistance with informatics. This work was supported in part by DK094777 from the National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (to H.L.T.M.); a Research Scholars Fellowship from the American Urological Association-North Central Section, administered by the Urology Care Foundation (to S.S.); and funds from the State of Maryland (T.H.H. and D.A.R.).
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Cover image: Pictured is a false-color scanning electron microscope image of framboidal pyrite crystals (red) embedded in an organic-rich Cretaceous shale. The image is part of a nearly 70 gigapixel image mosaic covering around 1 cm2 that was acquired at a resolution of 40 nm per pixel. Framboidal, or raspberry-like, pyrite is thought to reflect the activity of sulfate-reducing microbes. Boswell A. Wing and Itay Halevy modeled how respiration by sulfate-reducing bacteria and archaea discriminates, or fractionates, among sulfur isotopes. The results suggest that fractionation may be influenced by each step of the microbial respiration pathway and by the levels of intracellular respiratory metabolites, leading to strain-specific sulfur isotope phenotypes. See the Feature Article by Wing and Halevy on pages 18116–18125. Image courtesy of Fibics Incorporated.
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Data Availability
Data deposition: Genome alignment files (BAM) and corresponding genome sequences (FASTA) for HM26, HM27, HM46, HM65, and HM69 have been archived in the NCBI short read archive (accession no. SRP041701).
Submission history
Published online: December 8, 2014
Published in issue: December 23, 2014
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Acknowledgments
We thank the staff at the University Health Service Clinical Laboratory for help with sample collection; members of the H.L.T.M. laboratory, especially Christopher Alteri, Cody Springman, Courtney Luterbach, and Michael Engstrom, for insightful discussions; and A. Shetty at the Institute for Genome Sciences for technical assistance with informatics. This work was supported in part by DK094777 from the National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (to H.L.T.M.); a Research Scholars Fellowship from the American Urological Association-North Central Section, administered by the Urology Care Foundation (to S.S.); and funds from the State of Maryland (T.H.H. and D.A.R.).
Notes
This article is a PNAS Direct Submission.
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Competing Interests
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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